The minds machine 3rd edition pdf download free

The minds machine 3rd edition pdf download free

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WebDownload The Mind's Machine 3rd Edition - PDF – EBook "The Mind's Machine, introduced in , was written to impart the core concepts of behavioral neuroscience WebThe Mind's Machine: Foundations of Brain and Behavior by Neil V. Watson and S. Marc Breedlove - 3rd edition EBOOK (PDF) in need of The Mind's Machine: Foundations of WebDOWNLOAD NOW». "The Mind's Machine, introduced in , was written to present the interdisciplinary topics of introductory behavioral neuroscience to students from non WebThe Mind’S Machine 3Rd Edition PDF Book Details Product details Publisher: Sinauer Associates is an imprint of Oxford University Press; 3rd edition (October 12, ) WebThe Mind’S Machine Foundations Of Brain And Behavior 3Rd Edition PDF Book Details Product details Publisher: Sinauer Associates is an imprint of Oxford University Press; ... read more

Authors: Neil Verne Watson, S. Through the use of streamlined text, full-color art, novel pedagogical features, and real-life examples and analogies, the book succeeded in engaging students new to neuroscience without sacrificing accuracy. Put to the test by faculty and students, The Mind's Machine proved itself to be accessible and reader-friendly--not to mention affordably priced--and the new Third Edition is no less so" Realted Products. By ebooksb. com at April 11, Email This BlogThis! Share to Twitter Share to Facebook Share to Pinterest. Newer Post Older Post Home. Subscribe to: Post Comments Atom. Recent Reviews. Popular Items. CPT Professional Edition — PDF — EBook. Principles of Corporate Finance 12th Ed— PDF — EBook. Business Research Methods 9th Edition — PDF — EBook.

EBOOK DETAILS Authors: by William G. Zikmund, Barry J. Babin, Jon C. Carr, Mitch Griffin Author File Size: 58 MB Format: PDF Paperbac Governing Texas 4th Edition — PDF — EBook. EBOOK DETAILS Authors: by Anthony Champagne, Edward J. Harpham, Jason P. Casellas File Size: 30 MB Format: PDF Paperback: pages The Four Winds — PDF — EBook. eBook details Authors: By Kristin Hannah File Size: 5 MB Format: PDF Publisher: St. Martin's Publishing Group Language: English Powered by Blogger. Report Abuse. Contributors Philodos ebooksb. The ability of the nervous food and avoid predators. More recently, speculations about how natural selection system to change in response to might have shaped our own behavior, including specific cognitive abilities, have given experience or the environment. rise to a lively and controversial field called evolutionary psychology Barkow et al. For example, it has been argued G. Miller, that sexual selec- new neurons in the brain of an adult.

tion was crucial for evolution of the human brain. If early ancestors of modern humans social neuroscience A field of study came to favor mates who sang, made jokes, or produced artistic works, an ''arms race" that uses the tools of neuroscience to might have ensued as the ever more discriminating brains of one sex demanded ever discover both the biological bases of more impressive performances from the brains of the other sex. Did humor, song, and social behavior and the effects of social circumstances on brain activity. art originate from the drive to be sexy?

And does sexual selection account for the large size of the human brain? evolutionary psychology A field of study devoted to asking how natural Although evolutionary psychology excels at generating intriguing hypothetical selection has shaped behavior in accounts of the evolution of behaviors, the challenge for the future is to come up with humans and other animals. ways to test and potentially disprove these hypotheses. AN INTRODU CTION TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR Epigenetics is a young field focusing on factors that have a last- any changes in the nucleotide sequence of the genes themselves. ing effect on patterns of gene expression the turning on or off of specific genes- without changing the structure of the genes themselves.

In some cases, the acquired gene expression The turning on or off of specific genes. alteration in gene expression is passed down through generations, from parent to child, despite the absence of genetic modifications. neuroeconomics The study of brain mechanisms at work during economic At the beginning of the chapter, we briefly discussed rats that will show height- decision making. ened stress reactivity throughout their lives if neglected by their mothers while they consciousness The state of aware- are pups, and we asked whether this phenomenon was more attributable to "nature" ness of one's own existence, thoughts, or to ''nurture.

Or perhaps both. It is an epigenetic phenom- emotions, and experiences. enon, in which the maternal neglect causes lasting inactivation of a gene a process called methylation see Chapter 13 that causes the pup to be hyperresponsive to stress for the rest of its life. So, early experience produces a permanent change in the way in which genes are expressed in the brain of the neglected rat, thus altering its behavior in adulthood- nurture and nature. This same gene is also more likely to be methylated in the postmortem brains of humans who have committed suicide, but only if the victim was subjected to child- hood abuse McGowan et al. So, methylation of the gene in abused children may make them more susceptible to stress as adults and put them at risk for sui- cide- a powerful demonstration of epigenetic influences on behavior.

Epigenetic modifications are increasingly understood to have a major role in the development of individual differences in mental health disorders such as depression and stress pathology Gray et al. For additional examples of social influences on the structure of the brain, see A STEP FURTHER 1. Involving perspectives ranging from philosophy to social psychology to experimental psychology, neuroscience, and economics, neuroeco- nomics aims to identify brain regions that are especially active when decisions are being made: while playing games, managing resources, making strategic choices, and so on. Naturally, this research has some shorter-term benefits relating to prod- uct marketing what makes us want to buy something- but researchers mostly hope that, over the longer term, we will develop a more complete understanding of both the massive brain networks that are active while we choose among various alternatives and decide what to do next, and the ways in which we perceive and express our free will as well as if, indeed, we actually have free will!

Early indications are that we possess brain mechanisms dedicated to neuroeco- nomic evaluations, assessing the relative value of each choice available and then sift- ing through the evaluated choices in order to make a conscious decision Kable and Glimcher, ; Ojala et al. There is good reason to expect exciting new discoveries about how these neural systems inter- act with other cognitive systems to produce our conscious feeling of self. How is it possible that you are aware of the words on this page, the room you're occupying, the goals you have in life? Scientists have laid some of the groundwork for conceptualizing con- sciousness as a property of the brain and for establishing it as an area of scientific in- quiry Zeman, , but the devil is in the details.

Waldrop, both the USA and Europe is to Complete human Nature have a digital re-creation of the As this ~. experiments that de1nonstrate properties of consciousness, including the role of arous- al systems of the brain, and evidence that synchronized activity within large corti- cal networks gives rise to conscious introspection Raichle, And some of these experiments lead us to interesting-possibly disturbing-conclusions that our con- sciousness may track the operation of our brains much less accurately than we perceive as discussed in Chapter However it is brought about, any satisfying account of consciousness should be able to explain, for example, why a certain pattern of activity in your brain causes you to experience the sensation of blue when looking at the sky.

And a really good the - ory should tell us how we could cause you to experience the sky as yellow, just by changing your brain activity for you not, of course, by simply fitting you with colored goggles, but rather through a change in the deeper conscious experience of the world around you. However, we are nowhere near understanding consciousness this clearly. We generally have no idea what the actual inner experience of a human or animal is- only what an individual's behavior tells us about it. So even if you tell me that the sky "How Beautifully Blue the Sky" We would all agree that this sky is the is blue to you, I can't tell whether blue feels the same in your 1nind as it does in mine.

color we call "blue. might one day be, conscious. Several large research projects are currently engaged in © iStock. the Herculean task of mapping the neural networks within an entire human brain Waldrop, , which will require computer systems with almost unimaginable pro - cessing power and memory FIGURE 1. What is this? Define behavioral neuroscience. Name some fields that are closely allied to be- chapter, sections entitled havioral neuroscience. HOW'S IT GOING? provide 2. What do we mean when we say that behavioral neuroscience has a long past but conceptual questions that will only a short history? Review the prehistory of behavioral neuroscience and the help you check your learning gradual process of elimination that linked the brain and behavior.

and ensure you are meeting 3. Discuss the concept of localization of function. the objectives set out in 4. Comment on the prevalence of psychiatric and neurological disorders in contem- THE ROAD AHEAD. porary society, and discuss their economic and emotional impact. Where is behavioral neuroscience headed? Discuss some of the probable hot topics for future behavioral neuroscientists. AN INTRODU CTION TO BRAIN A N D BEHAV IO R In the second part of the chapter, we discuss the factors that neuroscientists consid- er in designing research: both the formal layout of experiments and the theoretical considerations on which research questions are based. Studying this section should prepare you to: 1. Describe and distinguish between correlational studies and experimental studies- in which either the body is altered and behavior is measured, or behavior is manipulated and bodi ly changes are measured-and explain how scientists rely on all three types of studies to develop research programs.

Discuss the major theoretical perspectives that inform research in behavioral neuroscience. Discuss important issues that modern behavioral neuroscience must contend with, such as the use of animals in research, and the replication crisis in behavioral research. Explain the different levels of analysis that may be focused on by behavioral neuroscientists, and identify how they may relate to one another. Careful Design of Studies Is Essential for Progress in Behavioral Neuroscience somatic intervention An approach to finding relations between body variables Because it is both fantastically complex FIGURE 1.

For example, it is difficult to phys- behavior. ically manipulate the structure and activity of the brain with pinpoint accuracy, so independent variable The factor technological advances have been responsible for the modern explosion in neurosci- that is manipulated by an experimenter. ence research. And because we can't ethically manipulate the brains of human re- dependent variable The factor that searcl1 participants other than through transient and noninvasive means , we often an experimenter measures to monitor must rely on alternatives such as purely observational research, in which behavioral a change in response to changes in an means are used to alter brain activity, or research in which we study neural function independent variable.

in lab animals in order to gain insights about our own nervous systems. The complexity of behavior, and the organ by which it is produced, have also been factors in an emerging crisis in behavioral neuroscience: difficulty in replicating numerous influential earlier findings De Boeck and Jeon, The development of new research procedures to avoid dead ends and unreproducible or un- important findings is thus driving a rapid evolution of scientific methodology across the behavioral sciences. Three types of study designs probe brain- ~:P J behavior relationships IWL- ;J ,:,;.

Ii ' r,Jll. Behavioral neuroscientists use three general types of studies for research on the biological bases of behavior. In an experiment employing somatic intervention FIG- URE 1. lOA , we alter a structure or function of the brain or body to see how this alteration changes behavior. In this sort of experiment, the physical alteration is an in- dependent variable a general term used to describe the manipulated aspect of any experiment , and the behav- ioral effect is the dependent variable a general term used to describe the measured consequence of an exper- imental manipulation. Some examples of somatic inter- vention experiments include 1 administering a hormone FIGURE 1. A B C Somatic intervention: Manipulating Behavioral intervention: Experience Correlation: Body and behavioral the body may affect behavior. affects the body including the brain. measures covary.

Somatic Behaviors Somatic Behavioral Somatic Behavioral interventions affected effects interventions variables variables Example: Example: Brain Learning Stren gth of m ating. Correlations Administer Changes in Put male in SlZe scores behavior a hormone hormone levels presence of female Example: Movement toward Hormone Strength of Stimulate brain Example: Correlations goal object Changes in levels mating behavior region electrically electrical activity Present of brain a visual stimulus Enlarged Example: Schizophrenic Cut connections Recognition of cerebral Correlations symptoms between parts of stimulus Anatomical ventricles Example: nervous system changes in. D Behavioral neuroscience seeks to understand all these relationships. Somatic intervention FIGURE 1. to some animals, but not others, and comparing the later sexual behavior of both groups; 2 electrically stimulating a specific brain region and measuring alterations control group In research, a group of in movement; and 3 destroying a specific region in the brain and observing subse- individuals that are identical to those in quent changes in sleep patterns.

In each case, the behavioral measurements follow an experimental or test group in every way except that they do not receive the the bodily intervention; furthermore, in each case the behavioral measurements are experimental treatment or manipula- compared with those of a control group. In a within-participants experiment, the tion. The experimental group is then control group is simply the same individuals, tested before the somatic intervention compared with the control group to occurs. In a between-participants experiment, the experimental group of individ- assess the effect of the treatment. uals is compared with a different group of individuals who are treated identically in within-participants experiment every way except that they don't receive the somatic intervention.

An experiment in which the same set The approach opposite to somatic intervention is behavioral intervention FIG- of individuals is compared before and after an experimental manipulation. The URE 1. In this approach the scientist alters or controls the behavior of an organ- experimental group thus serves as its ism and looks for resulting changes in body structure or funct ion. Here, behavior is own control group. the independent variable, and change in the body is the dependent variable. A few between-participants experiment examples include 1 allowing adults of each sex to interact and then measuring subse- An experiment in which an experimen- quent changes in sex hormones, 2 having a person perform a cognitive task while in tal group of individuals is compared a brain scanner and then measuring changes in activity in specific regions of the brain, with a control group of individuals that and 3 training an animal to fear a previously n eutral stimulus and then observing have been treated identically in every way except that they haven't received electrical changes in the brain that may encode the newly learned association.

As with the experimental manipulation. somatic intervention, these experimental approaches may employ either within-group behavioral intervention or between-groups designs. An approach to finding relations be- The third type of study is correlation FIGURE 1. Two exam- variables that involves intervening in ples of correlational studies include 1 observing the extent to which memory ability the behavior of an organism and looking is associated with the size of a certain brain structure and 2 noting that increases for resultant changes in body structure or function. in a certain hormone are accompanied by increases in aggressive behavior. Note that while this type of study tells us if the measured variables are associated in some way, it correlation The tendency of two measures to vary in concert, such that a can't tell us which causes the other. We can't tell, for example, whether the hormones change in one measure is matched by a cause the aggression or aggression increases the hormones.

But even though it can't change in the other. are linked, directly or indirectly, and thus it helps us to develop hypotheses that can be tested experimentally using behavioral and somatic interventions. Combining these three approaches yields the circle diagram of FIGURE 1. It also underscores that the effects of brain and behavior are reciprocal: each affects the other in an ongo- ing cycle. We will see examples of these reciprocal relationships throughout the book. Research objectives reflect specific theoretical orientations In designing their research programs, behavioral neuroscientists seek answers to well-defined, specific questions that build on the discoveries of scientists who have gone before.

In developing the questions that they wish to study, researchers draw on multiple different research perspectives. Here are some of the major ones:. Systematic description of behavior Until we describe what we want to study, we cannot accomplish much. Depending on our goals, we may describe behavior in terms of detailed acts or processes, or in terms of results or functions. To be use- ful for scientific study, a description must be precise, using accurately defined terms and units. The evolution of brain and behavior Charles Darwin's theory of evolution through natural selection is central to all modern biology and psychology. Behavioral neuro- scientists employ evolutionary theory in two ways: by evaluating similarities among species due to shared ancestry, and by looking for species-specific differences in be- havior and biology that have evolved as adaptations to different environments.

We will discuss many examples of both perspectives in this book. Life span development of the brain and behavior Ontogeny is the process by which an individual changes in the course of its lifetime- that is, grows up and grows old. Observing the way a particular behavior changes during ontogeny may give us clues to its functions and mechanisms. For example, we know that learning and memory abilities in monkeys increase over the first years of life. Therefore, we can speculate that prolonged maturation of brain circuits is re- quired for complex learning tasks. The biological mechanisms of behavior To understand the underlying mechanisms of behavior, we must regard the organism with all due respect as a ''machine," made up of billions of nerve cells, or neurons. In a sense, the mechanistic questions are the "how" questions of behavioral neuroscience, in contrast to the ''why'' questions that derive from the evolutionary and developmental per- spectives. So in the case of learning and memory, for example, we might try to understand how a sequence of electrical and biochemical processes allows us to store information in our brains, and how a different process retrieves it.

Applications of behavioral neuroscience discoveries The practical application of funda- mental discoveries in behavioral neuroscience can improve our lives, and as in so many other branches of science, basic and applied research inform each other in a reciprocal manner. We'll see numerous examples of this reciprocity in the book, ranging from genome-based treatment of brain diseases to technological approach- es for understanding brain mechanisms of learning, memory, and consciousness. Animal research is an essential part of life sciences research, including behavioral neuroscience causality The relation of cause and effect, such that we can conclude that Because we will draw on animal research throughout this book, we should comment an experimental manipulation has spe- on some of the ethical issues of experimentation on animals.

Human beings' involve- cifically caused an observed result. ment and concern with other species predates recorded history; early humans had to ontogeny The process by which an study animal behavior and physiology in order to escape some species and hunt oth- individual changes in the course of its ers. To study the biological bases of behavior inevitably requires research on animals lifetime- that is, grows up and grows old. of other species, as well as on human beings. Psychology students usually underesti- neuron Also called nerve cell. The basic mate the contributions of animal research to psychology because the most widely used unit of the nervous system. BOX 1. all vertebrates All vertebrates have a backbone and spinal cord.

all mammals All mammals suckle their young. All primates have a all relatively large, complex primates brain, and many primates have a hand with an opposable thumb. All humans use symbolic language to communicate all with each other. humans feature came from a common ancestral people Our eyes resemble those of octopuses, but certain key differences How do similarities and differences reveal that their eyes and our eyes among people and animals fit into evolved separately. behavioral neuroscience? Each person With respect to each biological some is in some ways like all other people, in property, researchers must determine people Some people like some ways like some other people, and how animals are identical and how they to eat beets no one in some ways like no other person.

And are different. When we seek animal knows why. as the figure shows, we can extend this models for studying human behavior or observation to the much broader range biological processes, we must ask the of animal life. following question: Does the proposed No two people, even identical twins, The electrical messages used by nerve animal model really have some things in no other are alike in each cells see Chapter 3 are essentially the common with the process at work in hu- person. and every way, same in a jellyfish, a cockroach, and a mans? We will see many cases in which it as individual human being, and many species employ does, but even within the same species, experiences leave their unique stamp identical hormones.

Species share these individuals differ from one another: cat on every brain. conserved characteristics because the from cat, blue jay from blue jay, and features first arose in a shared ancestor. person from person. Behavioral neuro- But mere similarity of a feature between science seeks to understand individual species does not guarantee that the differences as well as similarities. AN INTRO DU CTIO N TO BRA IN AN D BEHAVIO R introductory psychology textbooks often present major findings from animal research as if they were obtained witl1 l1uman participants Domjan and Purdy, A vocal minority of people believe that research with animals, even if it does lead to lasting benefits, is unethical. Others, like Peter Singer in his influential book Ani- mal Liberation , argue that animal research is acceptable only when it produces immediate and measurable benefits.

The potential cost in taking this perspective lies in the fact that we have no way of predicting which experiments will lead to a break- through. The whole point of studying the unknown is that it is unknown; there is a long history of chance observation, based on the steady accumulation of basic knowl- edge, leading to unexpected benefits. There's no denying that animal research can cause stress and discomfort, and researchers have a strong ethical obligation to hold pain and stress to the absolute minimum levels possible. Animal research has itself provided us with the drugs and techniques that make most research painless for lab animals, while also leading to improved veterinary care for our animal companions Sunstein and Nussbaum, , and researchers are ethically bound to continually refine lab practices with animal well-being a primary concern.

Researchers are also bound by animal pro - tection legislation and are subject to continual administrative oversight that ensures adherence to nationally mandated animal care policies that emphasize the use of as few animals as possible without jeopardizing research integrity, as well as the use of the simplest species that can answer the questions under study. Selecting the correct animal to study requires a careful evaluation of similarities and differences between species BOX 1. As human beings with the full range of emotions and empathetic feelings toward animals, we all wish there were an alternative to the use of animals in research. But if we want to understand how the nervous system works, we have to actually study it, in detail. The life sciences would slow to a crawl without the basic knowledge that we derive from studying animals. Behavioral neuroscientists use several levels of analysis A final consideration that researchers must weigh in designing experiments is the level of complexity at which to work.

Even the most complex behavior could, in the- ory, be understood at the level of cellular activity or even lower, at the level of bio- chemistry and molecular interactions. This idea, that we can understand complex systems by dissecting their simpler constituent parts, is known as reductionism. But we wouldn't get very far if we set out to explain, say, the use of grammar in terms of chemical reactions; the behavior is so complex that an explanation at the molecu- lar level would involve a vast amount of data. So instead, the reductionist approach aims to identify levels of analysis that are just simple enough that they allow us to make rapid progress on the more complex phenomena under study. Finding expla- nations for behavior often requires several levels of biological analysis, ranging from social interactions, to brain systems, to circuits and single nerve cells and their even simpler, molecular constituents.

Naturally, different problems are carried to different levels of analysis, and fruit- ful work is often being done simultaneously by different workers at several levels. For example, in their research on visual perception, some cognitive psychologists carefully analyze behavior. They try to determine how the eyes move while looking reductionism The scientific strategy at a visual pattern, or how the contrast among parts of the pattern determines its of breaking a system down into increas- visibility. Meanwhile, other behavioral neuroscientists study the differences in vi- ingly smaller parts in order to under- sual abilities among species and try to determine the adaptive significance of these stand it. For example, how is the presence or absence of color vision related to level of analysis The scope of an the lifestyle of a species? At the same time, other investigators trace out brain struc- experimental approach. A scientist may try to understand behavior by monitor- tures and networks involved in different visual tasks.

Still other scientists try to ing molecules, nerve cells, brain regions, understand the electrical and chemical events that occur in the brain during vision or social environments or using some FIGURE 1. combination of these levels of analysis. Social level: Neural system s level: Individuals behaving Eyes and visual brain regions in social interaction Organ level: Brain,spinalcord, Brain region level: peripheral nerves, Visual cortex and eyes. Circuit level: Local neural circuit. Cellular level: Single neuron. M olecular level 0 0 0 oO 0. HOW' S IT GOING 1. What are the three genera l forms of research studies in behaviora l neuroscience? What is the issue of "causality"? How do the three research perspectives inform and shape one another? Define independent variable, dependent variable, control group, within- participants experiment, and between-participants experiment. Describe the five major theoretical perspectives employed by modern behav- ioral neuroscientists that we discussed in the chapter: behavioral description, evolution, development, biological mechanisms, and applications.

Consider both sides of the debate over animal research, weighing the pros and cons of the "for" and "against" positions. How do you think animal use should be regulated? What is the general principle behind reductionism? How does this influence the level of analysis at which a researcher works? For that matter, what is meant by "level of analysis"? Looking Forward: A Glimpse inside the Mind's Machine Our mission in this book is to acquaint you with the broad topic of behavioral neu- roscience, from historical underpinnings to cutting-edge investigations of the most complex aspects of our intellect. For example, sometimes brain damage causes a person to lose the ability to identify other people's faces; what does that tell us about how the brain works during face recognition? AN INTRO DUCTION TO BRAIN AND BEHAVIOR Are particular parts of the brain active in romantic love, for example?

What parts of the brain are damaged to cause such changes? How can gender be defined? The relationship between the brain and behavior is very mysterious because it is difficult to understand how a physical device, the brain, could be responsible for our subjective experiences of fear, love, and awe. Perhaps it is the "everyday miracle'' as- pect of the topic that has generated so much folk wisdom- and unfounded mytholo- gy about the brain Pasquinelli, In fact, brain scans show that the entire brain is active most of the time while we go about normal daily activities. There are lots of other examples of commonplace beliefs about the brain Macdonald et al. We've compiled a few of these in TABLE 1. TABLE 1. Some human nerve cells are more than 3 feet long. True Nerve impulses travel at the speed of light. False Our bodies make chemicals that are similar in structure to heroin and cannabis. True Testosterone is made only by males, and estrogen is made only by females. False The adult brain can never grow new nerve cells.

False Some people are incapable of feeling pain. True We have five senses. False Different parts of the tongue are specialized to recognize certain tastes. False Each side of the brain controls the muscles on the opposite side of the body. True There are no anatomical differences between men's and women's brains. False Some people are "born gay. Not always Our brain shuts down when we are sleeping. False Sleepwalkers are acting out dreams. False In some animals, half the brain can be asleep while the other half is awake. True All cultural groups recognize the same facial expressions for various emotions. Uncertain Scientists are not entirely sure why antidepressant drugs work the way they do. True Brain damage can impair your ability to form new memories. True Each memory is stored in its own brain cells. False probably Our memory contains accurate accounts of past experiences.

False most of the time A stimulating environment can change the structure of an animal's brain. True We can take in a whole visual scene in just a single glance. False My brain decides what I will do next, before my conscious self is aware of the decision. Uncertain People are "right-brained" or "left-brained. True Students have different "learning styles" and so should be taught differently. False Listening to Mozart and other classical music will make babies smarter. False People with dyslexia see letters backward. False Physical exercise can improve brain function. True Children are less attentive after drinking sugary beverages. of them are unfounded; others are true but may sound improbable. No doubt you can think of others. Of course, it wasn't that long ago that the idea of making light from electricity seemed far-fetched. With each passing year, tech- nological developments and the progress of thou sands of neuro - scientists in labs around the world provide a clearer view of what is happening when a lightbulb goes on in the mind and someone has a clever idea.

Our hope for this book is that it will tu rn on a few light- bulbs for you too. Recommended Reading Decety, J. The Oxford Handbook of Social Neuroscience. NewYork, NY: Oxford University Press. Doidge, N. The Brain That Changes Itself. NewYork, NY: Penguin. A Bright Idea The symbolic lightbulb com ing on over Finger, S. Origins of Neuroscience. NewYork, NY: Oxford someone's head, representing a sudden insight or idea, University Press. is an especia lly apt metaphor for the functioning of the brain, g iven the lightbulb's rapid action and abi lity to Kaku, M. The Future of the Mind: The Scientific Quest to Understand, penetrate the gloom both literal and metaphorical. Enhance, and Empower the Mind. NewYork, NY: Random House. This particular lightbulb, in a fire station in Livermore, Koch, C. Consciousness: Confessions of a Romantic Reductionist. Ca lifornia, is the world's longest-burn ing bulb you can Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

check in on it, live, at www. Wickens, A. A History of the Brain: From Stone Age Surgery to htm. It has been continually lit for more than 1 mil lion Modern Neuroscience. New York, NY: Psychology Press. hours about years - since the dawn of the scientific discipl ine of behavioral neuroscience. You should be able to relate each summary to the adjacent illustration, including structures and processes. If you go to the website for our text 3e. com , you can follow links to figures, animations, and activities that will help you consolidate the material.

Behavioral neuroscience is a branch Although humans have wondered of neuroscience that focuses on about the control of behavior for the biological bases of behavior. It is thousands of years, only comparative ly close ly related to many other neuro- recently has a mechanistic view of the science disciplines. Review Figure 1. The concept of localization of function, which originated in phrenology-d espite obvious flaws with the phrenologists' methodology- was an important milestone for behavioral neuroscience. Localization of cognitive functions remains a major focus of behavioral neuroscience. With modern imaging technology and a more carefully va lidated understanding of cognitive abilities, a detai led view of the organization of the brain is emerging. Today we know that the part of the brain that shows a peak of activi- ty varies in a predictable way depending on what task we're doing. A lthough genes can have a major Anxle1y ~ The prevalence of neuro- Stroke 6.

al cord trnuma Schi2. Review comp lex social situations. Go to 3e. com for study questions, quizzes, flashcards, and other resources. feeling a bit odd all day; he thought Cheng's hand at all. perhaps he was coming down with How can an understanding of the pa th- a bug. But when he collapsed un- ways between brain and body provide clues conscious to the floor of the lunch- about Sam's problem? We now know quite room at work and began twitching a bit about the neural organization of basic and jerking, it was clear that he had a much functions, but the control of complex cogni- bigger problem than the flu. Sam was having tion remains a tantalizing mystery.

However, a seizure, a type of uncontrollable convul- the advent of sophisticated brain-imaging sion that he'd never had before. By the time technology has invigorated the search for an- Sam arrived at the hospital, the seizure had swers to fundamental questions about brain stopped, and although he was confused and organization: Does each brain region control slow to respond to commands, he didn't seem a specific behavior, or is the pattern of con- to be in distress. But when Sam smiled at Dr. nections within the brain more important? Do Cheng, the attending neurologist, and offered some regions of the brain act as general pur- to shake her hand, Dr. Cheng ordered imme- pose information processors? Is everybody's diate brain scans: Sam could offer only half brain organized in the same way? a smile, because only the left side of his face. lmost everything about us our thoughts, feelings, and behavior, however serious or silly is the product of a knobbly three-pound organ that, despite its unremarkable appearance, is the most compli- cated object in the known universe.

In this chapter we'll have a look at the structure of the brain from several different perspectives: the brain's cellular composition, its major anatomical divisions, and its appearance in computer- ized brain imaging. In later chapters we will build on this information as we learn how cells within the brain communicate through electrical see Chapter 3 and chemical see Chapter 4 signals. To see the video Inside the Brain, go to 3e. PART I The Cellular Components of the Nervous System To view the Brain Explorer, go to 3e. By the end of the section, you should be able to: 1. Name and describe the general function of the four main parts of a neuron. Classify neurons according to both structure and function. Outline the basic structure of a synapse and the steps in neurotransmission. Describe the four principal types of glial cells. The Nervous System Contains Several 'fypes of Cells All of your organs and muscles are in communication with the nervous system, which, like all other living tissue, is made up of highly specialized cells.

The most important of these are the neurons or nerve cells , arranged into the neural circuits that underlie all neuron Also called nerve cell. The forms of behavior, from simple reflexes to complex cognition. Each neuron receives inputs basic unit of the nervous system, each from many other cells, integrates those inputs, and then distributes the processed infor- composed of receptive extensions called mation to other neurons. Your brain contains billion of these tiny cellular com- dendrites, an integrating cell body, a puters Herculano-Houzel, , working together to process vast amounts of informa- conducting axon, and a transmitting tion with apparent ease. An even larger number of glial cells sometimes called just glia axon terminal.

are found in the human brain, mostly providing a variety of support functions but also glial cells Also called glia. Nonneuro- participating in information processing. Because neurons are larger and produce readily nal brain cells that provide structural, nutritional, and other types of support measured electrical signals, we know much more about them than about glial cells. to the brain. An important early controversy in neuroscience concerned the functional indepen- synapse The cellular location at dence of individual neurons: Was each neuron a discrete component?

Or were the cells which information is transmitted from of the nervous system fused together into larger functional units, like continuous cir- a neuron to another cell. Through painstaking study of the fine details of individual neurons, the celebrated Spanish anatomist Santiago Ramon y Cajal was able to show that although neurons come very close together, they are not quite con- tinuous with one another. from neuron to neuron across tiny gaps, later named synapses-a notion. It's impossible to measure exactly how many synapses there a re in the brain, but scientists think there may be as many as a quadril- lion synapses. That's a number too huge for most of us to comprehend: if you gathered a quadrillion grains of sand, each a millimeter in diam- eter, they would fill a cube that is longer than an American football field on each side well over a million cubic yards, or , cubic meters in more familiar units that's about million gallons of sand, or million liters!

These vast networks of connections are responsible for all of our achievements. As in other Nineteenth-Century Drawings of Neurons Santiago cells of the body, some organelles the mitochondria produce energy, Ramon y Cajal perfected methods for visua lizing the de- while others the ribosomes translate genetic instructions from the nu- tailed structure of individua l neurons labeled by Ramon y Caja l with lowercase letters. Ramon y Caja l and his cleus into the specialized proteins needed for the operation of the neu- collaborators proposed that neurons are discrete cel ls ron consult the Appendix if you need a refresher on cell biology. As we that communicate via tiny contacts, which were later will see, neurons vary widely in size, shape, and function, but almost named synapses. Some neurons receive only a few synaptic inputs; other receive thousands. Conduction zone, where information can be electrical! y transmitted over great distances. Output zone, where input zone The part of a neuron that Axon L..

dendrite An extension of the cell body that receives information from other Each axon terminal synapses onto another FIGURE 2. cell in order to transmit information. of the Neuron integration zone The part of a neu ron that initiates neural electrical activity. collecting inputs from multiple sources, processing and combining this information, cell body Also called soma. The region and distributing the results of this processing to other cells. These information-pro- of a neuron that is defined by the pres- cessing features, illustrated in FIGURE 2. tional zones: conduction zone The part of a neu- 1. Input zone At cellular extensions called dendrites from the Greek dendron, ron- typically the axon- over which the action potential is actively propagated.

Some neurons have dendrites that are elaborately branched, providing room for many axon Also called nerve fiber. A single extension from the nerve cell that car- synapses. Dendrites may be covered in dendritic spines, small projections from ries action potentials from the cell body the surface of the dendrite that add additional space for synapses. toward the axon terminals. Integration zone In addition to receiving additional synaptic inputs, the neu- axon collateral A branch of an axon. ron's cell body or soma, plural somata integrates combines the information output zone The part of a neuron that has been received to determine whether or not to send a signal of its own. at which the cell sends information to 3. Conduction zone A single extension, the axon or nerve fiber , carries the neu- another cell. ron's own electrical signals away from the cell body. Toward its end, the axon axon terminal Also called synaptic may split into multiple branches called axon collaterals.

The end of an axon or axon collateral, which forms a synapse onto 4. Output zone Specialized swellings at the ends of the axon, called axon terminals a neuron or other target cell and th us or synaptic boutons , transmit the neuron's signals across synapses to other cells. serves as the output zone. Life size: The adult Life size: The human brain, on cortex of the average, is 15 cm r h uman brain is from front to back. about 3 mm thick. z"' I. eye when stained. Magnification xlOO : Large nerve cell bodies are about µm 0. M agnification x l , : Large axon s and d endrites are about 10 µm 0. N eurons Parts of n eurons. M agnification x The synaptic cleft between n eurons is ab out 20 nm across. Syn apse Magnification x A neuron al membrane. M agn ification x : The diameter of an ion Synaptic cleft channel is about 0. Neu ronal m embrane.

Ion channel. FIGURE 2. from the cell body and FIGURE 2. neurons collect information from the environment or other cells Dendrites. All neurons have the same four functional zones-input, integration, conduction, There are hundreds of different forms of neurons, specialized to perform different kinds of processing. For example, motor neurons also called motoneurons are large and have long axons reaching out to synapse on muscles, causing muscular contractions. As their name implies, sensory neurons are specialized to gather sensory information, and they take many different shapes depending on w h ether they detect light or sound motor neuron Also called motoneuron. A neuron that transmits neural messag- or touch and so on. Most of the neurons in the brain are interneurons, which analyze es to muscles or glands. information gathered from one set of neurons and communicate with others. The axons sensory neuron A nerve cell that is of interneurons may measure only a few micrometers µmi a micrometer is a millionth of directly affected by changes in the envi- a meter , while motor neurons and sensory neurons may have axons a meter or more in ronment, such as light, odor, or touch.

length, conveying information to and from the most distant parts of the body. The relative sizes of neural neuron; interneurons receive input from structures that we will be discussing throughout the book are illustrated in FIGURE 2. and send output to other neurons. In addition to size, neuroscientists classify neurons into three general categories of multipolar neuron A nerve cell that shape, each specialized for a particular kind of information processing FIGURE 2. bipolar neuron A nerve cell that has 1. Multipolar neurons have many dendrites and a single axon. They a re the most a single dendrite at one end and a single common type of neuron. axon at the other end. Bipolar neurons have a single dendrite at one end of the cell and a single axon unipolar neuron Also called mono- at the other end. Bipolar neu rons are especially common in sensory systems, polar neuron. A nerve cell with a single such as vision. branch that leaves the cell body and then extends in two directions; one end 3.

Unipolar neurons also called monopolar neurons have a single extension or is the input zone, and the other end is process , usually thought of as an axon, that branches in two directions after the output zone. leaving the cell body. One end is the input zone with branches like dendrites; the other, the output zone. Unipolar neurons transmit touch information from the body into the spinal cord. In all three types of neurons, the dendrites comprise the input zone. In multipolar and bipolar neurons, the cell body also receives synaptic inputs, so it is also part of the input zone. Some of the techniques used to visualize neurons are discussed in BOX 2. Information is transmitted through synapses A neuron's dendrites reflect the complexity of the inputs that are received.

Some simple neurons have just a couple of short dendritic branches, while others have huge and complex dendritic trees or arbors covered in many thousands of synaptic contacts from other neurons. At each synapse, information is transmitted from an axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron FIGURE 2. Axon terminals typically form synapses on the On dendrites, synapses may form on cell body or dendrites of a postsynaptic neuron. dendritic spines or on the dendrite's shaft. P resynar. t1c ~ Information flows through a synapse from the postsynaptic Referring to the region presynaptic membrane across a gap called the of a synapse that receives and responds synaptic cleft to the postsynaptic membrane.

to neurotransmitter. BOX 2. revolution beginning in the mid 0s, Mysteriously, and in contrast to N issl In autoradiography, for example, animals when derivatives of fa bric dyes were stains, Golgi stains label only a small are treated with radioactive versions of found to vividly stain cells in ways that minority of neurons in a sample, but the experimental drugs, and then thin slices allowed visualization of previously affected cells are stained very deeply of the brain are placed alongside photo- hidden microscopic structure. In the and completely, revealing fine details graphic film. Radioactivity emitted by the nervous system, it b ecame possible to of cell structure such as the branches of labeled compound in the tissue "expos- selectively stain different parts of neu- dendrites and axons FIGURE B.

Golgi- es" the emulsion- as light does striking rons and glia, such as cell membranes, stained neurons stand out in sharp film- so the brain essentially takes a the cell body, or the sheaths surround- contrast to their unstained neighbors, picture of itself, highlighting the specific ing axons. Nowadays, scientists use so Golgi staining is useful for identifying brain regi ons where the drug has be- specialized staining procedures to study the types and precise shapes of neurons come selectively concentrated. An alter- the numbers, shapes, distribution, and in a region. There are a number of vari- native way to visualize cells that have an interconnections of neurons within tar- ants on this strategy, such as filling cells attribute in common- termed immuno- geted regions of the brain. with fluorescent molecules. histochemistry {IHC -involves creating antibodies against a protein of interest Counting Cells in Brain Regions Mapping the Expression of Cellular we can create antibodies to almost any Nissl stains outline all of the cell bodies Products protein.

Equipped with colorful labels, in a tissue section, allowing us to mea- Often, neuroscientists would like to know these antibodies can selectively seek sure the size and density of cell bodies the distribution of neurons that exhibit a out and attach themselves to their target in particular regions FIGURE A. M any specific property, such as sensitivity to a proteins within neurons in a brain slice, types of N issl stains and other tradi- hormone or drug, production of partic- revealing the distribution of only those tional general -purpose cell stains are ular proteins, or possession of a partic- neurons that make the target protein. ular activated gene. N umerous clever In the example in FIGURE C, antibodies have labeled only those cells contain- ing a protein expressed by c-fos, which A Nissl stain B Golgi stain is an immediate early gene IEG that is ' expressed in cells that have been recent I ly active. Localizing IEG proteins allows A related procedure. But tracing the interconnections between regions is a technical challenge, because axo ns are profuse and tiny, follow intricate routes, and are difficult to disentangle from one an other.

Figure A courtesy of Dr. Cynthia are taken up by neurons and transport- is injected into a region of interest, it L. Jordan, Michigan State University; ed over the routes of their axons. In is exclusively taken up by axon termi - B courtesy of Dr. Timothy DeVoogd; anterograde labeling the tract tracer nals and then transported back to their C from N. Sunn et al. is injected near the dendrites and cell originating cell bodies, thus revealing Acad. emy of Sciences, U. A; D from it is taken up and transported to the Some tract tracers can even jump across J.

Yuan et al. tips of the axons, thus revealing the synapses and work their way through 9: 70, courtesy of Dr. Oingming Luo. targets of the neurons under study. the length of the neural pathway, leaving. A synapse typically consists of the following elements FIGURE 2. The specialized presynaptic membrane of the axon terminal of the presynaptic i. The synaptic cleft, a gap of about 40 nanometers nm; billionths of a meter presynaptic membrane The special- that separates the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons ized membrane on the axon terminal of 3. The specialized postsynaptic membrane on the dendrite or cell body of the a nerve cell that transmits information by releasing neurotransmitter. postsynaptic i. Each synaptic vesicle contains molecules of neurotransmitter, the special a synapse. chemical with which a presynaptic neuron communicates with postsynaptic cells. This postsynaptic membrane The spe- communication starts when synaptic vesicles fuse to the presynaptic membrane and cialized membrane on the surface of a neuron that receives information by tl1en rupture, releasing their contents into tl1e synaptic cleft see Figure 2.

After responding to neurotransmitter from a crossing the cleft, the released neurotransmitter molecules interact with matching presynaptic neuron. neurotransmitter receptors that stud the postsynaptic membrane. The receptors cap- synaptic vesicle A small, spherical ture and react to molecules of the neurotransmitter, altering the level of excitation of structure that contains molecules of the postsynaptic neuron. This action affects the likelihood that the postsynaptic neu- neurotransmitter. ron will in turn release its own neurotransmitter from its axon terminals. Molecules of neurotransmitter Also called synaptic neurotransmitter generally do not enter the postsynaptic neuron; they simply bind to transmitter, chemical transmitter, or simply the receptors momentarily to induce a response, and then disengage. The chemical released from The configuration of synapses on a neuron's dendrites and cell body is constant- the presynaptic axon terminal that serves as the basis of communication ly changing- synapses come and go, dendrites change their shapes, dendritic spines between neurons.

wax and wane- in response to new patterns of synaptic activity and the formation of neurotransmitter receptor Also new neural circuits. We use the general term neuroplasticity to refer to this capacity called simply receptor. A specialized for continual remodeling of the connections between neurons. We will take a much protein, that selectively senses and more detailed look at neurotransmission in Chapters 3 and 4. reacts to molecules of a corresponding neurotransmitter or hormone.

The website is tightly integrated with the text, with in-text Web links that take you directly to specific on line resources. See more at right. Complex concepts and systems are made more accessible through the use of animations, videos, and activities. follow narrative, and important using a visual processes. style that closely matches the Receptors Postsynaptic cell textbook's Co«ect. Nondeclarative memory, which includes skill learning, priming, and conditioning, Is demonstrated through performance. I n nonhuman animals, most tests of memory measure nondeclaratlve memory, an exception being the delay ed n on·match ing · t o · sample t ask in monkeys.

Review figure On line versions of the Visual Summaries provide a thorough review of each chapter The Brain Explorer offers an interactive and include links to f igures, an imations, way to explore the bra in anatomy videos, and activities. discussed in each chapter, in both surface and sectional views. FIGURE Media Links ~ ;. Using your smartphone To see the video Narcoleptic Dachshund, go to or computer, type in 3e. Narcoleptic Dachshund,. go to. collapse and very rapid sleep onset FIGURE Just like humans who suffer from narcolepsy, these dogs often show REM signs immediately upon fulling asleep. finding the mutant gene responsible for narcoleptic dogs revealed a hypothalamic.. system that is responsible for narcolepsy in people too.

This was the gene for a neu visua l summaries on the Lin et al. Companion Website. The narcoleptic dogs start losing orexin neurons at about the age when symptoms of narcolepsy appear Siegel, Nienhuis et al. This degeneration of orexin neurons seems to cause inappropriate activation of the cataplexy pathway that normally happens only during REM sleep. So, orexin normally keeps sleep at bay and prevents the transition from wakefulness directly into REM sleep. Video 2. Where do these neurons send their axons to release the orexin? Not socoinci.. dentally, the axons go to each of the three brain centers that we mentioned before: basal forebrain, reticular fonnation, and locus coeruleus Sutcliffe and de Lecea, So, it looks as if the hypothalamus contains an orexin· based "'switching station"' l'it.

This system normally triggers paralysis only during REM, so loss of the system in narcolepsy leads to paralysis while awake cataplexy. The traditional treatment for naroolepsy was the use of amphetamines in the day· time. The drug GHB gamma· hydroxybutyrate, trade name Xyrem helps some narco- orexin AJso ca. Ued hypocretin. A neuto- leptics although there are concerns about potential abuse of this drug [Tuller, [. peptide produced in the hypothalamus A newer drug. modafiniJ Provigil}, is sometimes effective for preventing narcolep- Lhat is involved in switching between sleep states, in narco! and in the tic attacks and has been proposed as an "alertness drug"' for people with attention control of appeti~.

deficit hyperactivity disorder. There is also debate about whether modafinil s hould be. Videos present real-world examples of some of the key concepts and conditions discussed in the textbook. This invaluab le online resource helps you make. Nie IIMtWDett9W 5 SJ ~. tnt i,. connections between the science of biological e,, t! apprised of the latest developments in the field. ra esr ftol i. The site is updated times a week and contains WU:ot a-, I I Ms ffrt,tHu:t.. w '-'"' -,. thousands of news stories organized both by keyword and by textbook chapter. com The Mind's Machine Companion Website includes animations, videos, and activities for each chapter listed below as well as an interactive version of each chapt er's visual summary.

All three media categories are referenced throughout the book with the "eye" icon and direct Web addresses, on the textbook pages listed below. They are also referenced in each chapter's summary. A-2 It furthers the Universitys objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries. Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press Madison Avenue, New York, NY , United States of America.

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The NewYorkTirnes, The Wall Street Journal, on any acqu1rer. and the New Scientist, to name a few. A freelance illustrator since , Mallart Address editorial correspondence to: first worked for several children's book Sinauer Associates publishers and advertising agencies, using 23 Plt1mtree Road a classical realistic watercolor and ink style. Sunderland, MA 75 USA Some years later he began working in a more imaginative way, inventing a mix of Address orders, sales, license, permissions, and translation inquiries to: drawing, painting, and collage. His work Oxford University Press USA speaks of a surrealistic and absurd world Evans Road and engages the viewer's imagination and Cary, NC USA sense of fun. Despite the recurring use of Orders: the brain in his art, Mallart's background is not scientific- though his parents were both neurobiologists.

He uses the brain Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data as a symbol for abstract concepts such Names: Watson, NeilV. Neil Verne , author. I Breedlove, S. Marc, as intelligence, thinking, feeling, ideas, author. and knowledge. Attracted to all that is Title: The mind's machine : foundations of brain and behavior I Neil V. mechanical, Mallart's art frequently includes machine parts such as gears and wheels that Watson Simon Fraser University , S. Marc Breedlove Michigan State imply moven1ent and rhythm. These features University. together, in their abstract representation, Description: Third edition. I Sunderland, Massachusetts : Sinauer Associates, beautifully illustrate the topics discussed in Inc.

The Mind's Machine, Third Edition. To see Identifiers: LCCN I ISBN paperback more of Bruno Mallart's art, please go to his Subjects: LCSH: Brain--Textbooks. I Brain--Physiology--Textbooks. I Human website: www. behavior--Physiological aspects--Textbooks. I Psychobiology--Textbooks. I Neurophysiology--Textbooks. I Neuropsychology--Textbooks. I LCGFT: Textbooks. Classification: LCC QP W26 I DDC For my friend Marc, who has made For my rabbi, possible many wonderful things in my life, Iroing Zucker including this book. The Nervous System Contains Several Types PART III The Functional Organization of the of Cells 24 Nervous System 42 The neuron has four principal divisions 24 The Brain Is Described in Terms of Both Structure Information is transmitted through synapses 28 and Function 42 BOX 2. PART I Electric Neurons 56 Synaptic Transmission Requires a Sequence of Electrical Signals Are the Vocabulary of the Events 70 Nervous System 56 Action potentials cause the release of transmitter molecules into the synaptic cleft 71 A threshold amount of depolarization triggers an action potential 59 Receptor molecules recognize transmitters 72 Ionic mechanisms underlie the action potential 61 The action of synaptic transmitters is stopped rapidly 73 Action potentials are actively propagated along the axon 63 Neural circuits underlie reflexes 73 BOX 3.

PART I Sensory Processing and the Special neural pathways carry pain information Somatosensory System to the brain

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All ter. Post Your Review. It has been continually lit for more than 1 mil lion Modern Neuroscience. All vertebrates have a backbone and spinal cord. Allen, University of Colorado, Boulder have had the privilege of introducing the mysteries and de- lights of behavioral neuroscience, over the course of the last Dionisio A. But when Sam smiled at Dr.

Advanced embedding details, examples, and help! Marc Breedlove such as feeding, sleeping, and sexual behavior. As with the experimental manipulation. In this book we'll see many examples of how behav- ior and experiences alter the physical brain- a phenomenon called neuroplasticity or just plasticity; from the Greek plassein, ''to mold or form" but much remains to be discovered about mechanisms of neuroplasticity. The URE 1. However the minds machine 3rd edition pdf download free is brought about, any satisfying account of consciousness should be able to explain, for example, why a certain pattern of activity in your brain causes you to experience the sensation of blue when looking at the sky. NewYork, NY: Random House.